Zaidi, A., de Leeuwe, C., Chansai, S., Hardacre, C., Garforth, A., Parlett, C., & Spallina, V. (2025). Development of iron-nickel containing perovskites with increased oxygen carrier capacity for chemical looping H2 production. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 13(1), 115069. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2024.115069

One of the earliest reference to chemical looping combustion is Lewis and Gilliland, in 1954, publishing ‘Production of Pure CO₂‘ (patent US2665972A), which described a concept like chemical looping combustion, as well the idea of using oxygen carriers to reduce fuels [2]. In the 1980s Richter and Knoche proposed the principle of chemical looping combustion (CLC) to improve fossil fuel power plants [3].

The name CLC was first used by Ishida in the 1980s in a study to reduce exergy losses in natural gas power plants when converting fuel energy into thermal energy [4]. In 1994 Ishida and Jin continued research for the integration of CLC in power plants. They developed a new system for power generation to reduce the exergy destruction caused by combustion and heat exchange and solve the environmental issues associated with CO₂ by recovering and utilising it [5].

In the early 2000s, CLC hadn’t been demonstrated on a large plant scale with only a handful of test cycle runs, with the small number of oxygen carries being investigated [6].

The EU funded CO₂ capture program provided the first notable trial for CLC [7], with the experiment used more than 300 different types of oxygen carriers [8]. Another EU project was the ‘CO₂ Capture and Hydrogen Production from Gaseous Fuels’ (CACHET). This project focused on the different applications for hydrogen production and carbon capture and the integration of chemical lopping in auto-thermal reforming and steam reforming [9].

With the increased funding and attention that chemical looping was receiving, Chalmers university successfully operated a unit for over 1000 hours [10], successfully testing a large CLR unit under conditions like those seen in industry [11]. Feasibility study and simulation was done on a 3 MWe unit [12] and large scale testing demonstrations was done on 455 MWe commercial unit  [13], [14], [15]. 

By 2010 chemical looping processes had achieved more than 3500 hours of continuous operation and a significant number of papers, and patents in the space of 10 years, with testing of 36 different oxygen carrier materials [16].

Chemical Looping In a Packed Bed

A packed bed chemical looping reactor consists of the oxygen carrier particles packed into the reactor with alternating gas feed to the reactor (Figure 1.4). Noorman et al. [17] showed the feasibility of chemical looping using a packed bed reactor, shifting from the fluidised bed and bubbling bed reactors used for chemical looping previously [18]. 

Chemical looping performed in a packed bed reactor conventionally has three stages. The first stage is oxidation in air, producing hot oxygen-depleted air (N₂), which is used for power generation by being fed to a turbine. The next stage is where the oxidised oxygen carrier is reduced using a low-grade fuel, producing CO₂ and H₂O we can be easily separated for CO₂ sequestration. The third stage involves a heat removal stage, but this is dependent on the oxygen carrier being used [19], [20].

The benefit of using a packed bed reactor compared to using a fluidised bed is the difficulty associated with the separation of gases and particles is avoided and full utilisation of oxygen carrier oxidation states [17]. 

The flexibility of the types of chemical looping process in a packed bed reactor has been demonstrated with dry, wet and steam reforming compositions with the process having a dependence on the oxygen carrier used, with high material stability and reactivity being required [20]. 

When operating a PBR for chemical looping, two different velocities must be taken into account; these are the heat front and reaction front (Figure 1.5). The heat front involves the thermal motion of particles, with a velocity slower than the reaction front, with heat transfer occurring when the oxygen carrier is cooled down to the gas inlet temperature. The reaction front is the thin area between separating the hot products from the cool reactants that determines the gas-solid conversion and the heat generated in the bed [19], [21]. 

When significant flow rates go through the reactor, the heat front velocity is greater than the reaction front velocity. The initial solid temperature isn’t affected by the maximum reactor temperature [21].  

Chemical Looping Reforming

Recently, there has been a widening of this focus onto hydrogen production and other chemicals using chemical looping reforming (Figure 1.6) due to its ability of inherent separation producing a pure product coupled with carbon capture [22]. This is the case of syngas for methanol, ammonia and also liquid fuels.

Mattisson et al. [23]  first proposed chemical looping reforming (CLR) in 2001. CLR utilises the same basic principles as CLC, with the difference being the partial oxidation of hydrocarbon fuel to form reformate syngas. H₂O is used to increase the H₂/CO ratio desired for a process like Fischer Tropsch, which requires an H₂/CO ratio of 2 [24]. 

The reformate syngas produced can be put through other processes to produce chemicals such as; H₂, CH₃OH, NH₃, Fischer Tropsch processes. There are variations of CLR depending on the desired; these include steam reforming integrated with chemical looping combustion (SR-CLC), autothermal chemical looping reforming (CLR-A) and chemical looping steam methane reforming (CL-SMR).

Steam reforming integrated with chemical looping combustion

SR-CLC is a syngas generation process that Rydén and Lyngfelt [25] proposed. SR-CLC involves the conversion of steam and hydrocarbons, which is the same as conventional steam reforming. The CLC element is there to provide a source of heat for the endothermic reactions [16].

The reactor configuration used in SR-CLC consists of an air reactor for oxidation of the oxygen carrier and a fuel reactor to reduce the oxygen carrier using a fuel. The reforming stages consist of a series of tubes operated at elevated pressures and packed with the oxygen carrier. The reforming tubs are immersed within the fuel reactor (Figure 1.7), and during the reduction with the hot oxygen carrier, heat is transferred to the tubes for the reforming to occur [26], [27]. 

The position of the reforming tubes is due to the favourable conditions for heat transfer, with the hot particles easily maintaining a good tube wall temperature profile [16], [25]. Furthermore, favourable heat-transfer conditions have improved H₂ selectivity compared to conventional SMR [25].

Producing pure H₂ from SR-CLC requires integrating Water-Gas Shift (WGS) and Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA), providing 100% carbon capture, which involves separating H₂O from CO_2, which is a simple process compared to the costly and energy-intensive carbon capture used in conventional SMR.  

Issues present with SR-CLC are due to the possible degradation of the reforming tubes due to high temperatures, leading to cracks forming and loss of containment of the oxygen carrier into the air or fuel reactor [27]. Furthermore, the costs increase due to the requirement of WGS and PSA units, H₂ production. Reduction of these costs would be necessary to generate H₂ at a competitive price point. Otherwise, SR-CLC would be a better syngas production process. 

Chemical looping autothermal reforming

H₂ generation using CLR-A requires WGS and PSA units to maximise H₂ from the syngas. CLR-A produces H₂ without an external heat supply, removing the CO₂ emissions caused by external combustion for heat supply [26]. The significant advantage of CLR-A is that the heat needed to convert the hydrocarbon fuel into syngas doesn’t involve costly O₂ production and without any mixing of air with carbon-based fuels [28] (Figure 1.8). 

The heat balance is essential for CLR-A, with the heat generated from the exothermic oxidation of the oxygen carrier using air having to be sufficient enough to satisfy the heat required for the endothermic reduction and reforming stages [26], [28]. 

Other advantages of CLR-A are; less H₂O and oxygen carrier are required per unit fuel feed, no NO_X formation and produces syngas that can be used in methanol production and Fischer Tropsch, that isn’t possible with steam reforming of CH₄ and reduced sulphur poisoning of oxygen carrier [29], [30].

Chemical looping steam methane reforming

CL-SMR is a process that produces pure H₂ and syngas separately. Like other forms of chemical looping, the oxygen carrier is partially reduced by methane in the fuel reactor producing syngas. The next step is the difference with steam being used to oxidise the oxygen carrier to produce pure H₂. An air reactor is sometimes included to recover the oxygen carrier due to steam not fully recovering the lattice oxygen entirely as it is a weak oxidising agent (Figure 1.9) [28]. 

CL-SMR is an attractive option due to the possibilities of producing H₂ and syngas without the need for WGS or PSA units which reduces costs. The oxygen carrier must show high levels of reactivity with both CH₄ and H₂O throughout many cycles and must be resistant to carbon deposition, which can reduce the materials performance and carbon particles reacting the H₂O leading to contamination of the H₂ produced. The current literature is looking at ways to optimise the performance of oxygen carriers (Fe-based, Ni-based, Cu-based etc.) to find a suitable material to be used in CL-SMR [31]. The case (a) is not thermally balanced while case (b) it is because the presence of air is providing heat to the system.

References

• [1] A. Tong, M. V. Kathe, D. Wang, and L.-S. Fan, Handbook of Chemical Looping Technology. 2017. doi: 10.1002/9783527809332.
• [2] K. W. Lewis and E. R. Gilliland, ‘Production of pure carbon dioxide’, 1954
• [3] H. J. Richter and K. F. Knoche, ‘Reversibility of Combustion Processes’, in Efficiency and Costing, 1983. doi: 10.1021/bk-1983-0235.ch003.
• [4] M. Ishida, D. Zheng, and T. Akehata, ‘Evaluation of a chemical-looping-combustion power-generation system by graphic exergy analysis’, Energy, vol. 12, no. 2, 1987, doi: 10.1016/0360-5442(87)90119-8.
• [5] M. Ishida and H. Jin, ‘A new advanced power-generation system using chemical-looping combustion’, Energy, vol. 19, no. 4, 1994, doi: 10.1016/0360-5442(94)90120-1.
• [6] S. Abuelgasim, W. Wang, and A. Abdalazeez, ‘A brief review for chemical looping combustion as a promising CO2 capture technology: Fundamentals and progress’, Science of The Total Environment, vol. 764, Apr. 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142892.
• [7] A. Lyngfelt, B. Kronberger, J. Adanez, J. X. Morin, and P. Hurst, ‘The grace project: Development of oxygen carrier particles for chemical-looping combustion. Design and operation of a 10 kW chemical-looping combustor’, in Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies, 2005. doi: 10.1016/B978-008044704-9/50013-6.
• [8] J. X. Morin and C. Béal, ‘Chemical Looping Combustion of Refinery Fuel Gas with CO2 Capture’, in Carbon Dioxide Capture for Storage in Deep Geologic Formations, 2005. doi: 10.1016/B978-008044570-0/50123-9.
• [9] M. Rydén et al., ‘Developing chemical-looping steam reforming and chemical-looping autothermal reforming’, in Carbon Dioxide Capture for Storage in Deep Geologic Formations – Results from the CO2 Capture Project, First Edit., vol. 3, Cplpress, 2009, ch. 14, pp. 181–200.
• [10] C. Linderholm et al., Chemical looping combustion with natural gas using spray-dried NiO-based oxygen carriers, vol. 3. 2009.
• [11] M. Rydén et al., ‘Developing chemical-looping steam reforming and chemical-looping autothermal reforming’, in Carbon Dioxide Capture for Storage in Deep Geologic Formations – Results from the CO2 Capture Project, First Edit., vol. 3, Cplpress, 2009, ch. 14, pp. 181–200.
• [12] N. Berguerand and A. Lyngfelt, ‘The use of petroleum coke as fuel in a 10 kWth chemical-looping combustor’, International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control, vol. 2, no. 2, 2008, doi: 10.1016/j.ijggc.2007.12.004.
• [13] C. Béal et al., ‘Development of Metal Oxides Chemical Looping Process for Coal-Fired Power Plants’, Darmstadt: 2nd International Conference on Chemical Looping, Sep. 2012.
• [14] L. Zeng et al., ‘Coal Direct Chemical Looping Retrofit to Pulverized Coal Power Plants for In-Situ CO2 Capture’, Columbus, 2013.
• [15] H. E. Andrus, Jr., J. H. Chiu, C. D. Edberg, P. R. Thibeault, and D. G. Turek, ‘Alstom’s Chemical Looping Combustion Prototype for CO2 Capture from Existing Pulverized Coal-Fired Power Plants’, Pittsburgh, PA, and Morgantown, WV (United States), Sep. 2012. doi: 10.2172/1113766.
• [16] J. Adanez, A. Abad, F. Garcia-Labiano, P. Gayan, and L. F. De Diego, ‘Progress in chemical-looping combustion and reforming technologies’, 2012. doi: 10.1016/j.pecs.2011.09.001.
• [17] S. Noorman, M. van Sint Annaland, and Kuipers, ‘Packed Bed Reactor Technology for Chemical-Looping Combustion’, Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, vol. 46, no. 12, Jun. 2007, doi: 10.1021/ie061178i.
• [18] R. Ocone, ‘Transport phenomena in packed bed reactor technology for chemical looping combustion’, Chemical Engineering Research and Design, vol. 90, no. 10, Oct. 2012, doi: 10.1016/j.cherd.2012.02.012.
• [19] V. Spallina, F. Gallucci, and M. van Sint Annaland, ‘Chemical Looping Processes Using Packed Bed Reactors’, in Handbook of Chemical Looping Technology, 2018. doi: 10.1002/9783527809332.ch3.
• [20] V. Spallina, B. Marinello, F. Gallucci, M. C. Romano, and M. Van Sint Annaland, ‘Chemical looping reforming in packed-bed reactors: Modelling, experimental validation and large-scale reactor design’, Fuel Processing Technology, vol. 156, 2017, doi: 10.1016/j.fuproc.2016.10.014.
• [21] R. Gort and J. J. H. Brouwers, ‘Theoretical analysis of the propagation of a reaction front in a packed bed’, Combustion and Flame, vol. 124, no. 1–2, 2001, doi: 10.1016/S0010-2180(00)00149-8.
• [22] X. Zhu, Q. Imtiaz, F. Donat, C. R. Müller, and F. Li, ‘Chemical looping beyond combustion-a perspective’, 2020. doi: 10.1039/c9ee03793d.
• [23] T. Mattisson and A. Lyngfelt, ‘Applications of chemical-looping combustion with capture of CO2’, in Second nordic minisymposium on carbon dioxide capture and storage, 2001.
• [24] C. Allevi and G. Collodi, ‘Hydrogen production in IGCC systems’, in Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) Technologies, Elsevier, 2017. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-08-100167-7.00012-3.
• [25] M. Rydén and Lyngfelt. A, ‘Using steam reforming to produce hydrogen with carbon dioxide capture by chemical-looping combustion’, Int J Hydrogen Energy, vol. 31, no. 10, Aug. 2006, doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2005.12.003.
• [26] M. Luo et al., ‘Review of hydrogen production using chemical-looping technology’, 2018. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2017.07.007.
• [27] M. R. Rahimpour, M. Hesami, M. Saidi, A. Jahanmiri, M. Farniaei, and M. Abbasi, ‘Methane Steam Reforming Thermally Coupled with Fuel Combustion: Application of Chemical Looping Concept as a Novel Technology’, Energy & Fuels, vol. 27, no. 4, Apr. 2013, doi: 10.1021/ef400026k.
• [28] M. Ortiz, A. Abad, L. F. de Diego, P. Gayán, F. García-Labiano, and J. Adánez, ‘Optimization of a chemical-looping auto-thermal reforming system working with a Ni-based oxygen-carrier’, Energy Procedia, vol. 4, 2011, doi: 10.1016/j.egypro.2011.01.071.
• [29] H. RYU, G. JIN, and C. YI, ‘Demonstration of inherent CO2 separation and no NOx emission in a 50kW chemical-looping combustorContinuous reduction and oxidation experiment’, in Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies 7, Elsevier, 2005. doi: 10.1016/B978-008044704-9/50238-X.
• [30] F. García-Labiano, L. F. de Diego, P. Gayán, J. Adánez, A. Abad, and C. Dueso, ‘Effect of Fuel Gas Composition in Chemical-Looping Combustion with Ni-Based Oxygen Carriers. 1. Fate of Sulfur’, Ind Eng Chem Res, vol. 48, no. 5, Mar. 2009, doi: 10.1021/ie801332z.
• [31] M. H. S. Garai, M. R. Khosravi-Nikou, and A. Shariati, ‘Chemical Looping Steam Methane Reforming via Ni‐ferrite Supported on Cerium and Zirconium Oxides’, Chem Eng Technol, vol. 43, no. 9, Sep. 2020, doi: 10.1002/ceat.202000054.

Dr. Adam Zaidi

Dr. Adam Zaidi, PhD, is a researcher at The University of Manchester (UK). His doctoral research focuses on reducing carbon dioxide emissions in hydrogen production processes. Adam’s expertise includes process scale-up and material development.’

The post Fe-Based Chemical Looping | Upgrading Steam-Iron for Efficient Ammonia & Hydrogen Production with CO₂ Capture appeared first on Engineeringness.

Ammonium nitrate is typically a white solid and is the salt produced from the reaction of ammonia and nitric acid (Figure 1). The ammonia is the product of the reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen, the two main hydrogen production process for ammonia are natural gas and coal which is predominately used in China.

The ammonia feed for the production of ammonium nitrate is liquid anhydrous ammonia, it is stored as a liquid under pressure to prevent it from escaping to the atmosphere as it becomes a toxic gas. This is the main issue with using anhydrous ammonia and so it must be stored in a safe and secure location (Dana A. Shea, 2013). The nitric acid that is used in the production of ammonium nitrate can be feed into the process; similar to ammonia, or it can be made during the process by reacting nitrogen dioxide and water. There are issues with nitric acid due to it being corrosive and a strong oxidising agent, therefore it must be stored securely so it is not exposed to other substances, so it is not able to react and explode.

What Are Some of The Properties Of Ammonium Nitrate?

Ammonium nitrate is soluble in water, it is highly hydroscopic and is not very reactive, and is stable on its own. The chemical symbol of Ammonium nitrate is NH₄NO₃ its molar mass is 80.043 g/mol, it has ionic bonding and contains two ions: a cation, the ammonium ion (NH₄⁺) and an anion, the nitrate ion (NO₃^–) (Figure 2). The boiling point of ammonium nitrate is 210 deg and its melting point is 169.6 deg and it has a density of 1.72 g/cm^{3 (Pubchem, 2018)}. Ammonium nitrate was discovered in 1659 by a German chemist called Johann Rudolf Glauber.

Ammonium nitrate doesn’t regularly occur in nature due to it being soluble in water and is easily washed away by rainwater, it has been found in certain desert regions however it is found as a mixture with other minerals, but this is rare (Encyclopedia, 2018).  Ammonium nitrate is mostly sold as a solid, the two processes to produce solid ammonium nitrate are prilling and granulation. Prills are produced by sending concentrated ammonium nitrate, which is known as melt, down a prilling tower leaving the bottom of the tower as a solid. Granulation involves using a rotary drum to spray small seed particles of ammonium nitrate with melt to produce granules (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2018). 

The Ammonium Nitrate Market 

The ammonium nitrate global market size was estimated to be $4.67 billion in 2016, and the global production is estimated to achieve 1700 kilotons by 2022 (Global Information, 2018). The reason that the ammonium nitrate market is so large is due to the high demand for fertilisers and explosives around the world. The ammonium nitrate market is dominated by Europe, the USA, and China in terms of production and consumption, with over 70% of consumption and over 80% of production occurring in these regions (Grand View Research, 2017). 

In today’s market ammonium nitrate prill has two primary applications, the main use of ammonium nitrate prill is in fertilisers, which accounted for nearly 60% of the ammonium nitrate market in 2016 (figure 3). The other main use of ammonium nitrate is in explosives. Ammonium nitrate prill is very important for the agricultural industry as it is one of the key components in fertilisers. 

Fertilisers are typically made up of nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium compounds, and other trace elements (madehow, 2018). Fertilisers work by replacing the chemical components that are taken up by the plants from the soil, this leads to an optimum growing environment for the plants. Ammonium nitrate prills are highly soluble in soil and contain a high nitrogen content (about 33.5%). Nitrogen is an important nutrient for plants as it is a major component of chlorophyll, the compound by which plants use sunlight energy to produce sugars from water and carbon dioxide. 

Furthermore, nitrogen is a major component of amino acids that make up proteins, and if a plant doesn’t have proteins it will die. Furthermore, nitrogen is a significant component in nucleic acids such as DNA that allows cells to grow and reproduce (Crop Nutrition, 2018). Therefore, it is evident that nitrogen is very important for plants and with Ammonium nitrate prill having such a high nitrogen content and being inexpensive it is very useful for the agricultural industry. 

Ammonium nitrate prill is used in the manufacturing of explosives, this is due to it being an oxidizing agent and its explosive nature when it reacts with other compounds. ANFO is an extremely explosive compound and it is formed from the mixture of 94% prilled ammonium nitrate (AN) and 6% Fuel Oil (FO) (Cook, 1974), it’s a widely used explosive and accounts for 80% of all blasts that occur in the United States (Green, 2006). The reason that ANFO is so widely used in industries such as mining, quarrying, and demolition, is due to ANFO being low-cost and easy to use (Cook, 1974).   

What are Some Issues with Ammonium Nitrate? 

Issues with ammonium nitrate arise from storage and handling.  In the event of a fire, ammonium nitrate can melt and releases toxic fumes and if it reacts with water, it can form ammonium hydroxide solution which can cause irritation and burns. Thus, it is evident that ammonium nitrate has deadly reciprocations if not handled and stored in a safe and secure condition (Health and Safety Executive, 2018). Furthermore, due to ammonium nitrate being an oxidising agent when it comes into contact with other substances it can react with it can cause large explosions. This has led to incidents such as the Oklahoma bombing which used an ammonium nitrate bomb to destroy a building and killed 168 people (CNN, 2018).

Due to the risk of ammonium nitrate being used as a bomb for acts of terror, the sale of ammonium nitrate is closely monitored; for example, in the United States where the department of homeland security has multiple statutory authorities working for it that regulate the production and sale of ammonium nitrate for security purposes (Dana A. Shea, 2013). Due to the monitoring of ammonium nitrate, it is becoming increasingly harder to buy ammonium nitrate-based fertilisers on a small scale, this has affected the ammonium nitrate market as alternatives such as urea can be used in its place. However, using urea as a fertiliser is problematic as it can lose 40% of its nitrogen content if there is no rainfall within 2 days of it being used. 

The Future of Ammonium Nitrate 

In the future the restrictions that governments have on ammonium nitrate-based fertilisers may tighten; innovation will be the key for the future of fertilisers that rely on ammonium nitrate. A new technology that has recently been produced is a fusion of ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulfate, this fusion produces a product that is less explosive and is more efficient as a fertiliser. It is not regulated so it can be bought by anyone (FUSN, 2018). However, the drawback with this fusion is that it is relatively new and hasn’t been on the market long enough to become an established competitor for ammonium nitrate, which has been used in fertilisers for a very long time and will continue to be used around the world for the foreseeable future. 

Even with competition and innovations, the market for ammonium nitrate will continue to grow, this is due to continued high demand for explosives and fertiliser globally and the simplicity of producing ammonium nitrate and using it. The increased demand for explosives is due to increased military activity around the world and the increased mining in countries such as the USA, India, and Argentina for valuable metals and minerals. This has resulted in more mines opening which require blasting products, thus increasing the demand for ammonium nitrate. The high demand for fertilisers by the agricultural industry is due to the increasing global population, especially in China which uses the largest amount of nitrogen-based fertiliser in the world due to its high population which is increasing (figure 4).

References

CNN. (2018, March 25). Oklahoma City Bombing Fast Facts. Retrieved from CNN: https://edition.cnn.com/2013/09/18/us/oklahoma-city-bombing-fast-facts/index.html

Cook, M. A. (1974). The Science of Industrial Explosives. Salt Lake City: ireco chemicals.

Crop Nutrition. (2018). Nitrogen in Plants. Retrieved from Crop Nutritionhttps: https://www.cropnutrition.com/efu-nitrogen

Dana A. Shea, L.-J. S. (2013). Regulation of Fertilizers: Ammonium Nitrate and Anhydrous Ammonia.Washington: Congressional Research Service.

Encyclopedia. (2018, November 4). Ammonium Nitrate. Retrieved from Encyclopedia.com: https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/academic-and-educational-journals/ammonium-nitrate

FUSN. (2018). Product Data shee 26-0-0-14s. Retrieved from FUSN: http://simplotfusn.com/documents/FUSN-PDS.pdf

Global Information. (2018). Global Ammonium Nitrate Market 2018-2022. Retrieved from Global Information: https://www.giiresearch.com/report/infi666003-global-ammonium-nitrate-market.html

Grand View Research. (2017). Ammonium Nitrate Market Analysis By Application (Fertilizers, Explosives), By Region (North America, Europe, Asia Pacific, CSA, MEA), Competitive Landscape, And Segment Forecasts, 2018 – 2025. Retrieved from Grand View Research: https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/ammonium-nitrate-market

Green, E. M. (2006, june). Explosives regulation in the USA. Retrieved from Crowell: https://www.crowell.com/documents/DOCASSOCFKTYPE_ARTICLES_408.pdf

Health and Safety Executive. (2018). STORING AND HANDLING AMMONIUM NITRATE. Retrieved from Health and Safety Executive: http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg230.pdf

madehow. (2018). Fertilizer. Retrieved from How Products Are Made: http://www.madehow.com/Volume-3/Fertilizer.html

Pubchem. (2018). Ammonium Nitrate. Retrieved from Pubchem: https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/ammonium_nitrate#section=Top

Study. (2018). Ammonium Nitrate: Uses & Formula. Retrieved from study.com: https://study.com/academy/lesson/ammonium-nitrate-uses-formula.html

The conversation. (2020). Ammonium nitrate and iodine: a look back at the explosive history of two essential substances. Retrieved from The conversation: https://theconversation.com/ammonium-nitrate-and-iodine-a-look-back-at-the-explosive-history-of-two-essential-substances-146448

United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2018). Ammonium Nitrate. Retrieved from https://www3.epa.gov/ttnchie1/ap42/ch08/final/c08s03.pdf?fbclid=IwAR2ZJNM6V7HjFAQBOoHm6TxQmXDdYT2hzczUF0YEXOQ1uTbT6S7bLRW9xQ8

Dr. Adam Zaidi

Dr. Adam Zaidi, PhD, is a researcher at The University of Manchester (UK). His doctoral research focuses on reducing carbon dioxide emissions in hydrogen production processes. Adam’s expertise includes process scale-up and material development.’

The post Everything You Need To Know About Ammonium Nitrate appeared first on Engineeringness.

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5. Chemical Reaction Engineering – 3^rd edition by Octave Levenspiel

Chemical reaction engineering is an extremely popular book, written by the famous author Octave Levenspiel who is well known for his work on chemical reactors. Reaction engineering involves reaction kinetics which plays a vital role in chemical plants and is the basis for determining reactor size, reactor type, and the operating conditions. This book is a comprehensive guide of chemical reactors and topics that will be covered are; half time, conversions, reaction orders, types of reactors, activation energy, mass, and molar flow rates and many more.

This book will develop an instinctive sense of reactor design and help students to be able to understand reaction engineering which is one of the most challenging topics that a chemical engineering student will study, and with the simple easy to follow the format of the book and the example questions, it will make a challenging topic seem a lot easier.

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Dr. Adam Zaidi

Dr. Adam Zaidi, PhD, is a researcher at The University of Manchester (UK). His doctoral research focuses on reducing carbon dioxide emissions in hydrogen production processes. Adam’s expertise includes process scale-up and material development.’

The post Top 5 Chemical Engineering Books For Fundamental Principles appeared first on Engineeringness.

1. Engineering Thermodynamics, 6Th Edition By NAG P.K

This book is aimed at beginners and the fundamentals of classical thermodynamics are explained simply and effectively, with illustrations and examples. This book gives a mechanical engineering perspective for some topics, but this is still extremely useful to undergraduate chemical engineers to get a better overall idea of thermodynamics.

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2. Introduction To Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics By  J.m. Smith, Hendrick C. Van Ness And Michael M. Abbott.

This book goes into a lot of detail and may be too difficult to understand for beginners. It is aimed at undergraduates in their second or third year of university, who have developed a good base level of understanding of thermodynamics, and with the excellent examples and questions, this will be extremely beneficial for all graduate employees and final year chemical engineering students.

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3. Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics – 2nd Edition By K V Narayanan

Aimed at undergraduate chemical engineers, this book now in its second edition provides a student-friendly and thoroughly classroom-tested book, that provides comprehensive coverage of basic thermodynamic concepts and applications and as you progress through this book you focus on chemical thermodynamics.

This book contains over 200 worked examples, and 400 exercise problems with answers and objective-type questions, which will give the reader an extremely good level of understanding of thermodynamic concepts and theory. Furthermore, this book will be useful for undergraduates who are interested in polymer engineering, petroleum engineering, and safety and environmental engineering.

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4. The Laws Of Thermodynamics: A Very Short Introduction (Very Short Introductions) 1st Edition By Peter Atkins

A very short introduction by a well-known author, presented in a user-friendly manner making the book very clear, concise and well structured. This book covers the basics without having to read a lot, this book is great for professionals to remind them of key thermodynamic concepts and for undergraduates to be able to learn thermodynamic concepts and use this book as revision material.

Learn More or Buy Here

Dr. Adam Zaidi

Dr. Adam Zaidi, PhD, is a researcher at The University of Manchester (UK). His doctoral research focuses on reducing carbon dioxide emissions in hydrogen production processes. Adam’s expertise includes process scale-up and material development.’

The post The 4 Best Thermodynamic Textbooks On The Market appeared first on Engineeringness.

SHOP stands for shell higher olefin process and is a chemical process that produces Linear alpha olefins (LAO) from the raw material of ethylene. The SHOP process and mechanism was discovered in 1969 by shell chemists notably Wilhelm Keim in Emeryville California. The SHOP process came at a very important time and its success is due to several factors; the first factor was the cost of producing LAO was high and was only done by using a combination of wax and the Ziegler polymerization, the SHOP overcame the high costs as it processes to produce LAO’s was economically and environmentally better than the wax-splitting and Ziegler methods. Another factor is the demand for ethylene which is produced by the petrochemical industry being far smaller than the supply, thus with the abundance and low cost of ethylene it was the ideal hydrocarbon to use for the SHOP process. Another reason is that in the late 1960’s due to the negative ecological effects of detergents that caused foaming of surface water, theses detergents where being produced from branched fatty alcohols, thus the negative impact of the detergents put pressure on companies such as Shell to innovate and produce a detergent that didn’t cause ecological harm. The SHOP processes solved the ecological issue due to the branched fatty alcohols used in detergents by replacing them with linear fatty alcohols, which worked at lower temperatures and had better washing performances than the detergents that contained branched fatty alcohols (Keim, 2013).

The SHOP process was commercialized by Dutch Shell In 1977 and is used internationally with production exceeding 1 million tonnes annually. LAO are olefins which are alkenes with the general formula CnH2n and are distinguished from other alkenes/olefins due to the carbon double bond being located at the alpha position such as 1-butene and 1-hexene (figure 1).

Figure 1: 1-Butene (left) and 1-Hexene (right) examples of linear alpha-olefins.

Linear Alpha-Olefin Market

The market for LAO is constantly expanding with the highest uses in North America (40%), middle east (19%), Western Europe (16%) and China (10%) (figure 2). From 2012 – 2016 the global consumption of LAO increased by 5.4%, this is due to the increased demand for products that are manufactured using LAO such as; oilfield chemicals, detergents, surfactants and polyethylene comonomers. The projection for the LAO market for the future is an increase of around 3.6% during 2016-2021 with an estimated market value of 15.85 billion by 2023 (PRNewswire, 2018).

One of the main reasons for the projected increase is a new 200,000-tonne production plant being constructed in Qatar, this will increase the current annual global production by approximately 20% (Keim, 2013). Other factors for the projected increase of the alpha-olefins market is due to the continued high demand for alpha-olefins due to the low price of ethylene, the high demand for polyolefin comonomers, the high demand for speciality chemicals and the need for LAO in the oil industry and shale-based natural gases which are the driving force as both of these industries are projected to continue growing and will thus increase the demand for LAO (IHS Markit, 2017).

Figure 2: A Breakdown of SHOP market (IHS Markit, 2017).

Linear Alpha-Olefin Production Methods

LAO’s are produced in two main methods; the first method which is the most popular is the Oligomerization of Ethylene and the second method is the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis. The Oligomerization of Ethylene is the most used process for the production of ethylene as the undesired products that are produced at the end of the process can be recycled till extinction thus this makes the process have very small waste and increases the amount of product produced thus making the process very profitable. Fischer-Tropsch synthesis is used less for the production of LAO’s as Fischer-Tropsch as it produces a range of substance such as; alkanes, alkenes and alcohols. Also, the LAO’s produced must be separated and purified, this will cause the cost of the process to be high as more equipment is needed for the separation and purification. Furthermore, due to the importance of the position of the carbon double bond for LAO production companies will choose SHOP due to SHOP only producing LAO’s.

LAO’s that are produced from the SHOP process has a range of uses; the shorter chain LAO such as C4 – C8 are predominantly used in the production of polyethylene, LAO of chains of C10 – C14 are used in making surfactants for detergents. LAO with chains C16 – C18 is primarily used as a lubricating fluid and LAO with chain C20 and greater which are the least used types of LAO and are used in linear alkylbenzenes, which are used in household detergents as a surfactant (Students, 2015).

The SHOP process (figure 3) converts ethylene into LAO’s by using a variety of catalysts and the three main steps of the SHOP process; oligomerization of ethylene, isomerization and metathesis. The oligomerisation of ethylene this produces alpha-olefins C4-C8, C10-C14 and C16-C40, the desired alpha-olefins can be separated and sold or they C10-C14 alpha-olefins can be turned into alcohols by undergoing linear hydroformylation and then undesired alpha-olefins are sent to the next stage of the process. The second step is the isomerisation of carbon chains C4-C8 and carbon chains of C16-C40 and greater and converts them into internal olefins. The third step and last step is the metathesis which produces new internal olefins with the desired internal olefins C10-C14 being separated by distillation and then undergo hydroformylation and are converted into linear alpha olefins and then into alcohols and the undesired are sent back to isomerization’s part of the process and are recycled to extinction to produce the desired products (ETH Zurich, 2018).

Figure 3: SHOP process diagram schematic (Keim, 2013).

Oligomerization

The oligomerization of ethylene (C2H4) is carried using a homogenous nickel catalyst with a polar solvent at the process conditions of 90-100 ℃ and 40 bar with excess ethylene (Equation 1) (ETH Zurich, 2018). The polar solvent used is 1,4-butanediol, the 1,4-butanediol doesn’t act as a solvent for the products but the reactants and the catalyst, this makes recycling the catalyst easier as the 1,4-butanediol can be separated easily.

Equation 1: oligomerization of ethylene (C₂H₄) using a homogenous nickel catalyst.

The mechanism for oligomerization of ethylene (figure 4) starts with the catalyst precursor being converted into a nickel hydride complex which is the active catalyst intermediate, this is done by using a catalyst precursor which can include oxygen-phosphorus chelate (figure 5). The catalyst precursor has a chelate part and an organic part, the chelate part controls the length of the chain that is produced, and the organic part stabilizes the complex (figure 5) (Rothenberg, 2015). Ethylene is then inserted into the nickel hydride complex; the length of the carbon chain increases due to the insertion of ethylene and then β – hydride elimination occurs which transferrers the hydride atom from the ligand at the beta-position to the metal centre (Interactive Learning Paradigms Incorporated, 2015) thus terminating the chain and produces oligomers of different chain length, polyethylene, wax and regenerates the nickel hydride complex (Rothenberg, 2015).

Figure 4: The mechanism for Oligomerisation of ethylene (Keim, 2013)

Figure 5: examples of catalyst precursors (Hartwig, 2010)

The process of oligomerization of ethylene involves using the nickel catalyst to oligomerize ethylene to produce a broad range of alpha-olefins, the alpha-olefins that are produced are even-numbered and exhibit Flory-Schulz distribution. The alpha-olefins that are produced from the oligomerization of ethylene are then sent separated using distillation, with the alpha-olefins that are desired C4-C10 and C12-C18 being separated and the undesired products being recycled or sent to the next stage of the process which is isomerisation. The Flory-Schulz distribution indicates that oligomerization process favours polymers that are short-chain rather than a long chain, this is extremely useful the alpha-olefins that are produced majority short chain, with 41% being C4-C8 alpha-olefins, 40.5% C10-C18 alpha-olefins and the remaining 18.5% being C20 or greater alpha -olefins (Wittcoff, 2013). Producing these shorter chains alpha-olefins is economically advantageous as the shorter chain alpha-olefins with carbon chains C4-C8 and C10-C18 have direct commercial value and are separated and sold. Furthermore, C10-C14 LAO can undergo hydroformylation, which turns the C10-C14 alpha-olefins into C11-C15 alcohols with an aldehyde intermediate using an octacarbonyl catalyst with ligands such as tributylphosphine (equation 2) (Wittcoff, 2013).

Equation 2: linear hydroformylation of C10 alpha-olefins into C11 alcohol (Wittcoff, 2013)

Isomerization

The next step of the process is isomerisation, this carried out at the process conditions 80 -140 ℃ and 4-20 bar and uses heterogeneous catalysts such as; solid potassium, alkaline alumina or magnesium oxide granules (Hartwig, 2010) and involves the isomerisation of light alpha-olefins (C4-C10) and heavy alpha-olefins (C20+) into internal olefins. Internal olefins have the carbon double bond within the chain and not on the outer carbons. Undertaking isomerisation will cause the alpha-olefins to have the position of the double bonds change position and will result in several internal isomers forming which can be either cis or trans-isomers. This is witnessed in the isomerisation of 1-octene to form a mixture of mainly internal olefins such as 2-octene, 3-octene and 4-octene and a tiny amount of the original alpha-olefin is also found (equation 3) (King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, 2018). After the isomerisation of an alpha-olefin into an internal olefin, the internal olefins are sent to a mixer where they are mixed and are sent to the next stage of the SHOP process where they internal olefins are subjugated to olefin metathesis.

Equation 3: Isomerisation of 1-octene (King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, 2018)

Metathesis

Olefin metathesis causes new carbon double bonds to form, the mixture of short and long-chain internal olefins is passed over an alumina-supported molybdate catalyst that operates at 100-125 ℃ and 10 bar (Mol, 2004), the long and short-chain internal olefins in the mixture then react with one another and produce a statistical distribution of a mixture of linear internal olefins of that include carbon chains which are odd and even (equation 4) (Wittcoff, 2013).

Equation 4: Olefin metathesis of C4 and C20 internal olefins into C12 internal olefins (Wittcoff, 2013).

The species in the catalyst that acts as the active centres for olefin metathesis is the Mo4+ or the Mo5+ (Molybdenum ions). For the formation of the active species the formation of an -allyl complex is important and is the initiation step, and the formation of the active species is by prepared by in situ reductions of the catalyst by the olefin feed (DWYER, 2006). The process of olefin metathesis produces 10-15% of the desired linear internal olefin which has a carbon chain of C10-C14, the desired products are separated from the remaining 85-90% of the undesired products by distillation. The undesired products are then recycled and undergo isomerization and olefin metathesis until extinction. Using this recycling stream more than 96% of the products are C10-C14 linear internal olefin. The desired products form the metathesis stage (C10-C14 linear internal olefin) can undergo two different processes; the first process is linear hydroformylation, this causes linear internal olefins to be converted into linear aldehydes using a catalyst and in the presence of hydrogen. The catalyst is an octacarbonyl catalyst with ligands such as tributylphosphine (Wittcoff, 2013). The catalyst causes the reduction of the aldehyde as it causes the migration of the position of the carbon-carbon double bond to the primary position and then converts the intermediate aldehyde to be converted into C11-C14 alcohols which are used in plasticizers and precursors to detergents, an example of this is converting C12 internal olefins to C14 alcohol (equation 5) (Wittcoff, 2013). The second process involves alkylating the linear internal olefins to creates linear alkylbenzenes, which are used in household detergents as a surfactant (DWYER, 2006).

Equation 5: Linear hydroformylation of C12 internal olefin to C14 alcohol (Wittcoff, 2013).

References

DWYER, C. L. (2006). Metathesis of Olefins. In G. P. Chiusoli, Metal-Catalysis in Industrial Organic Processes (pp. 208-209). Sheffield: RSC publishing.

ETH Zurich. (2018). The Shell Higher Olefins Process (SHOP). Retrieved from ETH Zurich: https://www.ethz.ch/content/dam/ethz/special-interest/chab/icb/van-bokhoven-group-dam/coursework/Catalysis/2018/HomCat4_olefins_Part3_SHOP.pdf

Hartwig, J. F. (2010). Organotransition Metal Chemistry – From Bonding to Catalysis. California: University Science Books.

IHS Markit. (2017, March). Linear Alpha-Olefins. Retrieved from IHS Markit: https://ihsmarkit.com/products/linear-alpha-olefins-chemical-economics-handbook.html

Interactive Learning Paradigms Incorporated. (2015, March 31). Beta-Hydride Elimination. Retrieved from Interactive Learning Paradigms Incorporated: http://www.ilpi.com/organomet/betahydride.html

Keim, W. (2013, October 15). Oligomerization of Ethylene toa-Olefins: Discovery and development of the Shell Higher Olefin Process(SHOP). Retrieved from Wiley Online Library: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/anie.201305308

King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals. (2018). ISOMERIZATION OF OLEFINS. Retrieved from King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals: http://faculty.kfupm.edu.sa/chem/belali/CHEM%20620/Chapter%202/CHAPTER%202_ISOMERIZATION%20OF%20OLEFINS.pdf

Mol, J. C. (2004). Industrial applications of olefin metathesis. Journal of Molecular Catalysis A: Chemical, 39-45.

PRNewswire. (2018, July 31). Global $15.85 Billion Alpha Olefins Market by Type, Application and Geography – Forecast to 2023. Retrieved from PR Newswire: https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/global-15-85-billion-alpha-olefins-market-by-type-application-and-geography—forecast-to-2023–300689141.html

Rothenberg, G. (2015). Catalysis: Concepts and Green Applications. Amsterdam: Wiley.

Students, I. C.-F. (2015). Industrial Chemistry – For Advanced Students. Detroit: De Gruyter.

Wittcoff, H. (2013). Industrial Organic Chemicals (3rd Edition). New Jersey: Wiley.

Dr. Adam Zaidi

Dr. Adam Zaidi, PhD, is a researcher at The University of Manchester (UK). His doctoral research focuses on reducing carbon dioxide emissions in hydrogen production processes. Adam’s expertise includes process scale-up and material development.’

The post An In Depth Guide To The Shop Process appeared first on Engineeringness.

Particle size distribution (PSD) refers to the range and amount of different-sized particles in a sample, such as powder, granular material, or particles in a solution. This distribution is typically expressed by mass or length, showing the relative amounts of particles according to their sizes.

In practice, there are very large variations in particle sizes and distributions within a very broad range of physical and chemical properties and morphological properties of particles. Such variations are defined approximately by particle size, for example, particles less than a certain size class are either called micronised or milli-sized, those of a larger size class are called nano-sized or milli-sized, and those of other size ranges may be called micro-sized or mega-sized, or the like. The composition of a mixture of all sizes is given by its particle size distribution.

Figure 1: An image to show particle sizes (Microtrac, 2024)

Why Is Particle Size Distribution so Important?

PSD is crucial in quality control and research applications across various industries, such as pigments, ceramics, minerals, and pharmaceuticals. It influences material properties like flow behaviour, reactivity, solubility, compressibility, and even taste. Accurate PSD analysis is essential for product performance, quality, and functionality.

The functional form of a particle size distribution is often specified in a combined plot, such as cumulative distribution graph (graph 1), which shows the percentage difference for the size of each particle in a sample and a frequency distribution graph (graph 2) which shows the percentage of a sample corresponds to a given diameter.

Graph 1: Cumulative Distribution (Process, 2020)

Graph 2: Frequency Distribution (Process, 2020)

The physical and biological properties of the particles within a sample can vary radically based on the sample’s particle size distribution. For instance, particle size analysis is used to characterise the nature and extent of the particulate matter or dust in the atmosphere. Particle size distributions can also develop into an important parameter in certain industries such as inorganic pigments, ceramics, minerals and pharmaceuticals.

Measuring Particle Size Distribution

There are numerous ways to measure a particulate sample’s size distribution, a common way is to use a light microscope.

Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS)

Figure 2: Dynamic Light Scattering (LS Instruments, 2024)

Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) is a technique used to measure the size distribution of small particles, typically in the range of nanometers to micrometers, by analysing the fluctuations in the intensity of light scattered by particles in suspension. As particles move due to Brownian motion, these fluctuations provide information about their size. DLS is especially useful for characterising nanoparticles, emulsions, and other fine colloidal systems, offering a quick and non-invasive way to determine particle size based on their contribution to the overall scattering intensity.

Advantages of DLS

• Non-Invasive
  • DLS is a gentle method that doesn’t require altering or damaging the sample, making it ideal for delicate particles like proteins and nanoparticles.
• Quick and Efficient
  • The technique provides results quickly, often within minutes, making it suitable for rapid analysis in both research and industrial settings.
• Small Sample Size
  • DLS requires only a small amount of sample, which is beneficial when dealing with limited or expensive materials.
• Wide Size Range
  • DLS can measure particles ranging from a few nanometers up to a few micrometers, covering a broad range of applications.

Disadvantages of DLS

• Sensitivity to Large Particles
  • The presence of even a few large particles or aggregates can skew the results, as larger particles scatter much more light, dominating the measurement.
• Requires Clear Solutions
  • DLS works best with clear, dilute solutions. Any turbidity or high concentration can interfere with accurate measurements.
• Limited Information on Shape
  • DLS primarily provides information about particle size, not shape. Particles of different shapes but similar sizes may produce similar scattering patterns.
• Complex Data Interpretation 
  • The data analysis can be complex, requiring sophisticated software and expertise to accurately interpret the results.

Applications of DLS in Industry

Dynamic Light Scattering is widely used across various industries due to its ability to accurately measure small particles. Here are some key applications:

• Pharmaceuticals
  • DLS is used to analyse the size of drug particles and nanoparticles, which is critical for drug formulation, stability, and bioavailability.
• Biotechnology  
  • In biotechnology, DLS is employed to study proteins, antibodies, and other biological molecules. It helps in understanding their aggregation behaviour and stability, which is vital for developing therapeutics.
• Nanotechnology  
  • DLS is a fundamental tool in nanotechnology for characterising nanoparticles, liposomes, and other nanoscale materials. Understanding particle size distribution is crucial for optimising the properties and functionality of these materials.
• Food and Beverages 
  • The food industry uses DLS to study emulsions, such as those found in dressings and creams. It helps ensure product consistency and stability by monitoring particle sizes in suspensions.
• Cosmetics
  • DLS helps in the formulation of cosmetic products by analysing the size of particles in creams, lotions, and other emulsions. This ensures product smoothness and texture.
• Environmental Monitoring
  • DLS is used to measure particles in water and air, helping in the assessment of pollution levels and the effectiveness of filtration systems.

Laser Diffraction

Laser Diffraction is a widely used technique for measuring the size distribution of particles ranging from submicron to several millimetres in size. It works by passing a laser beam through a dispersed sample (either in liquid or air) and analysing the pattern of light scattered by the particles. The angle and intensity of the scattered light provide information about the size of the particles, with smaller particles scattering light at larger angles and larger particles scattering at smaller angles.

Figure 3: Particle size distribution laser diffraction (Shimadzu, 2020)

Advantages of Laser Diffraction

• Broad Size Range  
  • Laser Diffraction can measure particles across a wide size range, from nanometers to millimetres, making it versatile for many applications.
• Rapid Analysis  
  • The technique provides fast measurements, often in just a few seconds, allowing for high-throughput analysis in both research and industrial environments.
• High Reproducibility
  • Laser Diffraction offers consistent and repeatable results, making it reliable for quality control and production processes.
• Non-Destructive  
  • The method is non-invasive, meaning that the sample is not altered or damaged during measurement, which is beneficial for sensitive materials.
• Ease of Use 
  • Modern laser diffraction instruments are user-friendly, with automated sample handling and analysis, making them accessible to non-specialists.

Disadvantages of Laser Diffraction

• Assumption of Particle Shape  
  • Laser Diffraction typically assumes that particles are spherical, which can lead to inaccuracies when measuring irregularly shaped particles.
• Sample Preparation Requirements 
  • Proper dispersion of the sample is imperative. Bad dispersion can lead to agglomeration or incomplete separation of particles, affecting the accuracy of the measurement.
• Limited Sensitivity to Very Small Particles 
  • While effective over a wide range, Laser Diffraction may struggle to accurately measure very small nanoparticles, particularly those below 100 nanometers.
• Complexity in Data Interpretation 
  • The interpretation of scattering patterns can be complex, requiring sophisticated software and a good understanding of particle size distribution theory.

Applications of Laser Diffraction in Industry

Laser Diffraction is a critical tool in various industries due to its ability to quickly and accurately measure particle size distributions. Here are some key applications:

• Pharmaceuticals 
  • Laser Diffraction is used extensively to measure the size distribution of drug powders, which is essential for ensuring proper dosage, stability, and bioavailability in formulations.
• Cement and Construction Materials 
  • In the construction industry, Laser Diffraction helps determine the particle size distribution of cement and other materials, which affects the strength, setting time, and durability of the final product.
• Food Industry  
  • This technique is used to analyse the size of particles in food products such as flour, sugar, and emulsions, helping to control texture, consistency, and quality.
• Chemical Industry  
  • Laser Diffraction is employed to monitor the particle size of pigments, resins, and other chemicals, ensuring uniformity and consistency in production processes.
• Minerals and Mining 
  • The method is crucial in the mining industry for analysing ore particles, which helps in optimising grinding processes and improving mineral recovery rates.
• Cosmetics 
  • Laser Diffraction is used to characterise particles in cosmetic powders and creams, influencing the feel, spreadability, and appearance of the final product.
• Environmental Monitoring  
  • The technique is applied in environmental science to measure particulate matter in air and water, contributing to pollution monitoring and control.

Sedimentation (Centrifuge Particle Size Analyser – CPSA)

Sedimentation using a Centrifuge Particle Size Analyser (CPSA) is a technique employed to measure the size distribution of particles, typically those larger than a few micrometers. The method is based on the principle that particles in a liquid medium settle at different rates depending on their size, shape, and density. Mass determined by this method can be used to calculate the volume distribution statistic, and the volume distribution itself can be further used to calculate the true geometric mean of the particle size distribution.

Figure 4: CPS Disc Centrifuge (Instruments, 2020)

Advantages of Sedimentation (CPSA)

• High Precision for Larger Particles
  • CPSA is particularly effective for measuring larger particles (typically above 1 micron), providing high precision in size determination.
• Accurate Mass and Volume Distribution 
  • The technique provides detailed mass and volume-based size distributions, which are critical for many industrial applications where particle mass and volume impact product performance.
• Good for Polydisperse Samples  
  • CPSA is well-suited for analysing polydisperse systems (samples with a wide range of particle sizes), offering a clear view of the distribution across different size classes.
• Non-Destructive
  • Like other non-invasive methods, sedimentation does not alter the sample during analysis, preserving the integrity of the particles.

Disadvantages of Sedimentation (CPSA)

• Time-Consuming
  • The sedimentation process, even when accelerated by centrifugation, can be relatively slow compared to other particle sizing methods, making it less suitable for high-throughput applications.
• Limited to Larger Particles
  • CPSA is not effective for analysing very small particles (e.g., nanoparticles), as these particles may settle too slowly or not at all, making them difficult to measure accurately.
• Requires Proper Dispersion
  • Just like other particle sizing techniques, proper dispersion of the sample is crucial. Aggregation of particles can lead to inaccurate measurements.
• Influence of Particle Shape  
  • The settling rate can be influenced by the shape of the particles, potentially leading to errors if particles are not uniform in shape.

Applications of Sedimentation (CPSA) in Industry

Sedimentation using CPSA is utilised in various industries, particularly where the precise measurement of larger particles is essential. Here are some key applications:

• Pharmaceuticals  
  • In the pharmaceutical industry, CPSA is used to measure the size distribution of drug granules and excipients, which affects the dissolution rate, stability, and bioavailability of medications.
• Ceramics and Powders
  • The ceramics industry relies on CPSA to analyse the size of powder particles used in the production of ceramics. Accurate particle sizing helps in controlling the properties of the final product, such as density and strength.
• Minerals and Mining 
  • CPSA is employed in the mining industry to analyse the size distribution of mineral particles. This information is crucial for optimising processes like grinding and flotation, which impact the efficiency of mineral recovery.
• Pigments and Coatings  
  • The pigment and coatings industry uses CPSA to ensure that particle size distributions meet specific requirements, influencing colour intensity, dispersion stability, and coating smoothness.
• Construction Materials 
  • In the construction industry, CPSA helps in analysing materials like cement and aggregates, where particle size distribution affects the workability, strength, and durability of the final product.
• Environmental Science 
  • CPSA is used in environmental monitoring to measure sediment particles in water bodies, helping to assess pollution levels and the effectiveness of filtration systems.

Optical Sizing Analyser (OSA)

An alternative method to measure a sample’s size distribution can be the Optical Sizing Analyser (OSA). The Optical Sizing Analyser (OSA) is a particle size analysis technique that measures the size distribution of particles by analysing the light they scatter or absorb as they pass through a light beam. This method is based on the principles of light refraction and diffraction, and it is particularly effective for determining the size of particles suspended in a liquid or dispersed in a gas. The OSA can measure a wide range of particle sizes, making it a versatile tool in various industries.

Figure 5: Optical Sizing Analyser (Interlab, 2020)

Advantages of Optical Sizing Analyser (OSA)

• Non-Destructive  
  • OSA does not alter or damage the particles during analysis, preserving the sample’s integrity, which is especially important for delicate or expensive materials.
• Wide Size Range  
  • The OSA can measure particles across a broad range, from submicron to millimetre sizes, making it suitable for many different applications.
• High Sensitivity  
  • This technique is sensitive enough to detect small differences in particle size, providing detailed information about the distribution of sizes in a sample.
• Real-Time Analysis  
  • OSA can provide real-time measurements, which is beneficial for continuous monitoring in industrial processes and for immediate quality control.
• Versatile  
  • OSA can handle different types of samples, including liquids, gases, and dry powders, making it a versatile tool across various industries.

Disadvantages of Optical Sizing Analyser (OSA)

• Sample Preparation Requirements 
  • Proper sample preparation is critical to ensure accurate measurements. Poor dispersion or incorrect concentration can lead to inaccurate results.
• Assumption of Particle Shape  
  • OSA typically assumes that particles are spherical, which may lead to inaccuracies when measuring particles with irregular shapes.
• Cost  
  • The equipment and maintenance for OSA can be expensive, making it less accessible for smaller laboratories or industries with limited budgets.
• Complex Data Interpretation
  • The interpretation of results from an OSA can be complex, often requiring specialised software and expert knowledge to accurately analyse the data.

Applications of Optical Sizing Analyser (OSA) in Industry

The Optical Sizing Analyser is used in a variety of industries due to its ability to measure particle sizes accurately and efficiently. Here are some key applications:

• Pharmaceuticals 
  • OSA is used to determine the size distribution of particles in drug formulations, which affects the drug’s dissolution rate, bioavailability, and stability. This ensures that the pharmaceutical products meet the required standards for safety and efficacy.
• Food and Beverages  
  • In the food industry, OSA is employed to analyse particles in emulsions, suspensions, and powders, helping to control texture, consistency, and stability of products like sauces, dressings, and beverages.
• Cosmetics 
  • The cosmetics industry uses OSA to measure the size of particles in creams, lotions, and powders, which influences the product’s texture, application, and appearance on the skin.
• Chemicals and Polymers  
  • OSA is essential in the chemical industry for analysing the particle size distribution in pigments, polymers, and resins, which impacts the colour, dispersion, and overall quality of the final product.
• Environmental Monitoring  
  • OSA is used to measure particulate matter in air and water samples, contributing to environmental monitoring and pollution control efforts. It helps in assessing the effectiveness of filtration systems and the impact of pollutants.
• Mining and Minerals  
  • In the mining industry, OSA is used to analyse the size distribution of mineral particles, which is critical for optimising processes like grinding, sorting, and flotation, improving the efficiency and yield of mineral extraction.
• Paints and Coatings  
  • The size of particles in paints and coatings affects their application properties, such as smoothness, gloss, and drying time. OSA is used to ensure that the particle size distribution meets the desired specifications.

Sieve Analysis

Figure 6: Sieve Analysis (Particletechlabs, 2024)

Sieve Analysis is a classic and widely used technique for determining the particle size distribution of a granular material. This method involves passing a sample through a stack of sieves with progressively smaller mesh sizes, separating the particles into different size fractions. The mass of particles retained on each sieve is then measured, providing a straightforward way to quantify the distribution of particle sizes in the sample. Sieve Analysis is especially useful for larger particles, typically those above 45 micrometers.

Advantages of Sieve Analysis

• Simplicity and Accessibility
  • Sieve Analysis is a straightforward, easy-to-understand method that requires minimal training and can be performed with relatively inexpensive equipment, allowing it to be accessible to all areas of the world.
• Robustness  
  • The method is robust and can be used for a wide range of materials, including powders, granules, and aggregates, making it versatile across different industries.
• Direct Measurement  
  • Sieve Analysis provides a direct measurement of particle size distribution by physically separating particles, offering clear and tangible results.
• Wide Application Range  
  • It is applicable to a wide variety of materials, particularly those with larger particle sizes, such as soil, sand, cement, and other construction materials.
• No Assumption of Particle Shape  
  • Unlike some other methods, Sieve Analysis does not rely on assumptions about particle shape, making it effective for irregularly shaped particles.

Disadvantages of Sieve Analysis

• Limited Precision for Fine Particles  
  • Sieve Analysis is less effective for very fine particles (typically below 45 micrometers), as they may pass through the sieve meshes irregularly or agglomerate, leading to inaccurate results.
• Labor-Intensive  
  • The process can be labour-intensive, especially for large sample sizes or when multiple fractions are required. It also requires careful handling to avoid sample loss.
• Time-Consuming  
  • Depending on the sample and the number of sieves used, the process can be time-consuming, especially when compared to automated methods like laser diffraction.
• Potential for Sieve Wear 
  • The sieves themselves can wear out over time, particularly when working with abrasive materials, which can affect the accuracy of the results and necessitate regular maintenance and replacement.

Applications of Sieve Analysis in Industry

Sieve Analysis is employed across numerous industries due to its effectiveness in measuring particle size distribution in larger particles. Here are some key applications:

• Construction Materials
  • In the construction industry, Sieve Analysis is crucial for grading aggregates, sand, and cement. The particle size distribution impacts the strength, durability, and workability of concrete and asphalt mixtures.
• Mining and Minerals  
  • The mining industry uses Sieve Analysis to determine the particle size distribution of ores and minerals, which is essential for optimising the grinding process and improving mineral recovery.
• Agriculture 
  • Sieve Analysis is used to analyse soil composition, helping to determine soil texture, which affects water retention, aeration, and fertility.
• Food Industry
  • In the food industry, Sieve Analysis is used to ensure uniformity in particle size for products like flour, sugar, and spices, which is important for consistency in texture, taste, and processing behaviour.
• Pharmaceuticals  
  • Sieve Analysis is used to classify granules and powders, which is critical in ensuring consistent dosing, flowability, and compressibility in tablet formulation.
• Environmental Science  
  • Sieve Analysis is employed in environmental science to analyse soil and sediment samples, helping to assess erosion patterns, sediment transport, and soil fertility.
• Chemical Industry
  • The chemical industry uses Sieve Analysis to determine the particle size distribution of raw materials and finished products, which affects the reactivity, solubility, and quality of chemical formulations.

Dynamic Image Analysis (DIA)

Dynamic Image Analysis (DIA) is an advanced technique used to measure the size and shape distribution of particles by capturing and analysing high-speed images of particles as they flow through a detection area. Unlike traditional methods that only provide information on particle size, DIA offers detailed insights into the shape, aspect ratio, and morphology of particles, making it a powerful tool for comprehensive particle characterisation. This method is particularly useful for analysing particles ranging from a few micrometers to several millimetres in size.

Figure 7: Schematic diagram of Dynamic Image Analysis (DIA). A Sympatec QICPIC® was employed for 2D DIA analysis and a Microtrac PartAn3D® was employed for 3D DIA analysis (wp.nyu.edu, 2024)

Advantages of Dynamic Image Analysis (DIA)

• Detailed Particle Shape Information 
  • DIA provides not only particle size but also detailed shape characteristics, such as elongation, roundness, and aspect ratio, which are crucial for understanding the behaviour and functionality of particles.
• Real-Time Analysis  
  • DIA offers real-time data acquisition and analysis, allowing for immediate feedback during processing or quality control operations.
• Versatile Measurement Range  
  • DIA can measure a wide range of particle sizes, from a few micrometers to several millimetres, making it suitable for diverse applications across different industries.
• Non-Destructive 
  • The technique does not alter or damage the sample, preserving the integrity of the particles for further analysis or processing.
• High Throughput  
  • DIA can process a large number of particles quickly, making it ideal for high-throughput applications where large sample volumes need to be analysed rapidly.
• Comprehensive Data 
  • DIA provides comprehensive data on particle size distribution, shape, and morphology, enabling a deeper understanding of the sample’s characteristics.

Disadvantages of Dynamic Image Analysis (DIA)

• Complex Data Interpretation  
  • The amount of data generated by DIA, particularly regarding particle shape, can be complex to interpret and may require advanced software and expertise.
• Higher Cost  
  • DIA systems can be expensive, both in terms of initial investment and maintenance, potentially limiting their accessibility for smaller laboratories or industries.
• Sample Preparation Requirements  
  • Proper dispersion of the sample is essential to avoid overlapping particles, which can complicate image analysis and lead to inaccurate measurements.
• Limited for Extremely Fine Particles
  • While DIA is effective for a broad range of sizes, it may be less accurate for extremely fine particles, particularly those below a few micrometers.

Applications of Dynamic Image Analysis (DIA) in Industry

Dynamic Image Analysis is used across various industries due to its ability to provide detailed and comprehensive particle characterisation. Here are some key applications:

• Pharmaceuticals
  • In the pharmaceutical industry, DIA is used to analyse the size and shape of granules, powders, and crystals, which are critical for ensuring consistent drug formulation, dissolution rates, and bioavailability.
• Mining and Minerals 
  • The mining industry employs DIA to characterise ore particles, helping to optimise grinding and separation processes, which enhances mineral recovery and processing efficiency.
• Food and Beverages  
  • DIA is used in the food industry to analyse particles in products such as flour, sugar, and emulsions. Understanding particle size and shape helps control texture, consistency, and product stability.
• Cosmetics  
  • The cosmetics industry uses DIA to measure and analyse particles in powders, creams, and lotions. The size and shape of particles impact the texture, application, and appearance of cosmetic products.
• Chemicals and Polymers  
  • In the chemical industry, DIA is employed to analyse the particle size and shape of raw materials and finished products, which affects the flow properties, reactivity, and quality of chemical formulations.
• Construction Materials  
  • DIA is used to analyse aggregates, cement, and other construction materials. The particle size and shape distribution influence the strength, durability, and workability of concrete and other building materials.
• Environmental Science  
  • DIA is applied in environmental science to analyse soil, sediment, and particulate matter in air and water samples. It helps assess pollution levels, sediment transport, and soil fertility.

Why Measure PSD?

The ability to measure particle size distributions is critical to the many different industries and applications. Although there are many ways to adequately find this data, each involving different costs, some are more efficient than others. Usually, through a complex method involving laser diffraction, the particle size distribution can be got from one pellet. This pellet is usually made up of 2000 samples of 50 particles each. A simpler, but much more expensive, the method is to use the OSA. The sedimentation method is the quickest and most accurate way to obtain the size distribution of a sample.

As previously mentioned, particle size distribution is a very important aspect in almost every industry and is a representation of how one specific sample differs from others in terms of particle sizes. This is important in knowing how to select the correct particles for a specific function. For instance, in pharmaceuticals having the particles of a certain size is important when it comes to the performance and appropriateness of drug formulation.

Key Parameters from PSD Analysis

• Percentiles (d10, d50, d90)  
  • These values indicate the size below which 10%, 50%, or 90% of the particles fall. They are crucial for understanding the spread of particle sizes within a sample.
• Mean Particle Size
  • Calculated by averaging the sizes within each measurement class, weighted by the quantity in each class.
• Distribution Width  
  • The spread of particle sizes, often expressed as standard deviation or span value (d90 – d10) / d50.
• Mode Size  
  • The most frequently occurring particle size in the distribution.
• Monomodal vs. Bimodal Distributions 
  • A monomodal distribution has a single peak, while bimodal (or multimodal) distributions have multiple peaks, indicating different dominant particle sizes.
• Oversize and Undersize Particles
  • These are particles significantly larger or smaller than the bulk of the sample, often identified by steps in the cumulative curve or additional peaks in the density distribution.

References

Instruments, C. (2020). CPS Disc Centrifuge. Retrieved from CPS Instruments Europe: http://www.cpsinstruments.eu/pdf/General%20Brochure.pdf

Interlab. (2020). Optical Spectrum Analyzer. Retrieved from Interlab: https://www.interlab.pl/en/product/optical-spectrum-analyzer.html

LS Instruments. (2024). Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS). Retrieved from LS Instruments: https://lsinstruments.ch/en/theory/dynamic-light-scattering-dls/introduction

Microtrac. (2024). Analysis of Particle Size Distribution. Retrieved from Microtrac: https://www.microtrac.com/knowledge/particle-size-distribution/

Particletechlabs. (2024). Sieve Analysis. Retrieved from Particletechlabs: https://particletechlabs.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Sieve_Analysis.jpg

Process, P. (2020). Particle Size Distribution (PSD). Retrieved from Powder Process: https://www.powderprocess.net/psd.html

Shimadzu. (2020). Particle Size Distribution Calculation Method. Retrieved from Shimadzu: https://www.shimadzu.com/an/powder/support/practice/p01/lesson22.html

WP.NYU.EDU. (2024). Dynamic Image Analysis. Retrieved from WP NYU EDU: https://wp.nyu.edu/dia/

Dr. Adam Zaidi

Dr. Adam Zaidi, PhD, is a researcher at The University of Manchester (UK). His doctoral research focuses on reducing carbon dioxide emissions in hydrogen production processes. Adam’s expertise includes process scale-up and material development.’

The post Understanding Everything That Is Particle Size Distribution (PSD) appeared first on Engineeringness.

Internal flow is the transport of fluids in pipes, ducts and conduits (flow sections). There are different flow regimes for the flow of fluids: laminar flow, transitional flow, and turbulent flow. Flow regimes mainly depend on the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces, with the ratio being called the Reynolds number. 

For non-circular pipes, the Reynolds number is based on the hydraulic diameter D_h.

Flow Regimes

For the different flow regimes in circular pipes, the Reynolds number is different (Figure 1): 

• Laminar flow, Re < 2300 – characterised by smooth streamlines and highly ordered motion. 

• Transitional flow, 2300 < Re < 4000 – flow switches between laminar and turbulent randomly.

• Turbulent flow, Re > 4000– characterised by velocity fluctuations and highly disordered motion.  

Entrance of Pipe Flow

The boundary layer is a region where the viscous shearing forces caused by fluid viscosity are felt. At the boundary layers hypothetical surface divides the flow into two areas (Figure 2) (Course hero, 2020): 

• The boundary layer region – a region of flow in which viscous effects and velocity changes are significant.
• Irrotational (core) flow region – frictional forces are negligible, and velocity remains constant in the radial direction. 

When the temperature profile is constant, the flow is fully developed, with hydrodynamically developed flow equivalent to fully developed flow.

For laminar flow, the velocity profile in the fully developed region is parabolic and somewhat flatter in the turbulent area (Figure 3). 

The hydrodynamic entry length is the distance from the pipe entrance to where the wall shear stress (and thus the friction factor) reaches within about 2% of the fully developed value (TEXSTAN, 2021). For laminar flow, the hydrodynamic entry length is given approximately when the temperature profile is unchanging (Figure 4). 

During turbulent flow, due to the intense mixing, random fluctuations dominate the effects of molecular diffusion. Thus, the hydrodynamic entry length is approximated: 

References

Course hero. (2020). MEC554 FLUID LAB 2 FLOW PAST CYLINDER. Retrieved from Course hero: https://www.coursehero.com/file/47519253/MEC554-FLUID-LAB-2-FLOW-PAST-CYLINDER-COMPILEpdf/

jaimeirastorza. (2017). transition laminar turbulent flow. Retrieved from jaimeirastorza: https://jaimeirastorza.wordpress.com/2017/03/17/elegance-in-flight-book-review/transition-laminar-turbulent-flow/

slidetodoc. (2020). Viscous flow in ducts Circular and noncircular ducts. Retrieved from slidetodoc: https://slidetodoc.com/viscous-flow-in-ducts-circular-and-noncircular-ducts/

TEXSTAN. (2021). TEXSTAN Glossary of Terms – definitions and explanations. Retrieved from TEXSTAN: http://texstan.com/glossary.php

Dr. Adam Zaidi

Dr. Adam Zaidi, PhD, is a researcher at The University of Manchester (UK). His doctoral research focuses on reducing carbon dioxide emissions in hydrogen production processes. Adam’s expertise includes process scale-up and material development.’

The post A Breakdown | Internal Flow Part I appeared first on Engineeringness.

Carbon Capture And Storage (CCS) Market Comprehensive Study is a new study on the global market CCS. The study details the leading players in CCS and the technology.

Organisations in the United States, Germany, Japan and Canada are identified as the leading players in the report;

• Fluor Corporation (United States),
• Dakota Gasification Company (United States),
• Aker Solutions (United States),
• NRG Energy (United States),
• Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd (Japan),
• Hitachi Ltd (Japan),
• Japan CCS (Japan),
• Siemens AG (Germany),
• The Linde Group (Germany),
• Cansolv Technologies Inc. (Canada).

The report identified the growing popularity of CCS in developing countries. Energy transition companies Technip Energies and Svante have jumped on this trend. They are planning to introduce Svante’s solid sorbent carbon capture technology to capture CO2 from gas outlets that would otherwise be released into the atmosphere. 

Europe, the Middle East, Africa, and the Russian Federation markets are the primary targets for energy-intensive industries. These include; blue hydrogen, refineries, petrochemicals, steel, and ammonia.

This partnership with Technip Energies will allow us to focus our development effort on building a scalable supply chain for active capture materials to address a broad carbon capture and removal solutions offering at the Gigaton scale.

Claude Letourneau, President and CEO of Svante

Implementing sorbent carbon capture technology allows the processes to maintain current production conditions and capture CO2. Is this the best technology to reduce CO2 emissions, or is an overhaul of mainstream chemical manufacturing methods the better option to become greener? 

What are your views? Leave your comments below. 

Dr. Adam Zaidi

Dr. Adam Zaidi, PhD, is a researcher at The University of Manchester (UK). His doctoral research focuses on reducing carbon dioxide emissions in hydrogen production processes. Adam’s expertise includes process scale-up and material development.’

The post Carbon Capture and Storage Projects; Growth Of The Global Market appeared first on Engineeringness.

Utilisation of waste is a growing industry world wide. Across multiple sectors with low raw material costs, companies gladly give away their waste, to be then converted into a useful product.

UK energy from waste amounts to approximately 2.5% of total net UK power generation as of 2021. This is just over half of the power generated from solar farms, 4.1% and around x10 less than wind generated electricity.

A Scottish water site in Aberdeen, has successfully produced biogas from waste water sludge, reducing the amount of fuel oil used to power boilers and sludge being sent to landfill. This results in-cutting around 1,300 tonnes of CO2 emissions and saving more than £250,000 per year.

When you consider the quantities of waste water that we are treating on a daily basis, being able to turn that into something with a tangible use and creating a circular economy is a key strand of our routemap towards net zero.

Waste water operations manager in Grampian, Simon Wrigglesworth

Enfinium Kelvin has reached financial close on a 395,000 tonne per annum post-recycled waste-to-energy facility in West Bromwich, Midlands. The site will provide electricity to 95,000 houses and create up to 400 jobs.

Today marks a milestone for the project and a huge step forward to providing capacity for the safe and reliable treatment of waste that cannot be reduced, reused or recycled in the U.K

Chief Executive Officer Julia Watsford

Being able to utilise waste, whilst producing electricity and reducing the greenhouse gas effect from landfill seems like a win-win situation for law makers.

Furthermore, reducing the land taken up by landfills in the UK should open up more land for residential buildings.

Due to these benefits, would it not be better to focus on waste power generation rather than other green electricity generation methods? Should the UK government start to prioritise waste power generation?

We would love to hear your ideas, leave your comments below.

Dr. Adam Zaidi

Dr. Adam Zaidi, PhD, is a researcher at The University of Manchester (UK). His doctoral research focuses on reducing carbon dioxide emissions in hydrogen production processes. Adam’s expertise includes process scale-up and material development.’

The post Waste Power; The UK Lags Behind appeared first on Engineeringness.

Electricity production is dominated by fossil fuels, and with the global climate crisis, finding alternative renewable methods for electricity production is becoming ever more important. 

Solar farms or solar parks are becoming a popular method, with their application being different from other photovoltaic power such as solar cells mounted on buidlings. Solar farms supply electricity at a utility level, sending electricity straight to a national grid system rather than local use or singular use. 

Around the world successful projects have been implemented, at a range of scales. A large-scale example is the Benban solar complex in the Aswan governorate, Egypt which has developed 1,650 MWp of solar capacity. 

Giant solar park in the desert jump starts Egypt’s renewables push

Aidan Lewis

A smaller scale solar garden in Chicago, where the solar panels are installed at a greater height, allows plants to grow below. This reduces the effects of harmful sunlight and greater land utilisation.

The local council states that Manuden and Berden solar farm will help meet national targets for both energy supply and low carbon energy development.

 […] supply clean energy for up to 40 years

BBC

The opposition, Stop Battles Solar Farm, opposes the solar farms on a number of ground; the land being used is heritage land, increased movement of lorries, closing footpaths, and ruining the rural landscape.

A solar farm does not just consist of several thousand solar panels.  Solar farms are surrounded by a perimeter of 2m high stock proof fences and pole-mounted CCTV cameras.  They are not a friendly places. Expect “Danger of Death” signs at regular intervals along the fences. And the power generated by the panels needs to make its way to the grid – this involves the construction of substations, inverters, transformers, access roads and communications buildings.

Comment from Stop Battles Solar Farm

The issue here comes from the implementation of the solar farm, should this be changed? Is the solar farm like the one in Egypt that produces a lot of electricity, but requires a large amount of land?

Is the Chicago solar garden model a better option to maintain the rural environment, at the cost of reduced power generation?

Let us know what you think in the comments down below? 

Dr. Adam Zaidi

Dr. Adam Zaidi, PhD, is a researcher at The University of Manchester (UK). His doctoral research focuses on reducing carbon dioxide emissions in hydrogen production processes. Adam’s expertise includes process scale-up and material development.’

The post Controversy Brews On Essex’s New Solar Farm appeared first on Engineeringness.