Research led by Xenofon Strakosas at Linköping University is demonstrating a new way to fabricate electronic electrodes directly on soft and sensitive surfaces, including human skin, using nothing more than visible light. The approach offers an alternative to conventional manufacturing methods that rely on toxic chemicals, ultraviolet radiation, or complex equipment, and it could expand how bioelectronic devices are designed and deployed.
Abrahamsson, T., Ek, F., Cornuéjols, R., Byun, D., Savvakis, M., Bruschi, C., Sahalianov, I., Miglbauer, E., Musumeci, C., Donahue, M. J., Petsagkourakis, I., Gryszel, M., Hjort, M., Gerasimov, J. Y., Baryshnikov, G., Kroon, R., Simon, D. T., Berggren, M., Uguz, I., … Strakosas, X. (2025). Visible‐Light‐Driven Aqueous Polymerization Enables in Situ Formation of Biocompatible, High‐Performance Organic Mixed Conductors for Bioelectronics. Angewandte Chemie. https://doi.org/10.1002/ange.202517897
The work builds on ongoing efforts to develop conductive polymers for medical and wearable electronics. These materials, often referred to as conjugated polymers, combine electrical conductivity with mechanical properties closer to biological tissue than those of metals. This makes them particularly useful for applications where electronics must conform to the body, transmit biological signals, or remain stable during movement.
Xenofon Strakosas at Linköping University stated,
“As the method works on many different surfaces, you can also imagine sensors built into garments. In addition, the method could be used for large-scale manufacture of organic electronics circuits, without dangerous solvents.”
Traditional methods for producing conductive polymers depend on chemical initiators that can be hazardous or incompatible with living tissue. In contrast, the Linköping-led team developed water-soluble monomers that polymerize when exposed to visible light. Because the process occurs in water and avoids toxic additives, it can be carried out safely on delicate substrates.
In practical terms, the method involves applying a liquid monomer solution to a surface and then using a light source to define electrode patterns. The illuminated regions polymerize into conductive material, while the remaining solution can be rinsed away. The researchers showed that this approach works on rigid substrates such as glass, as well as flexible materials including textiles and skin.
The study was conducted through a collaboration between researchers at Linköping University, Lund University, and partner institutions in the United States. Lead author Tobias Abrahamsson and colleagues focused on organic mixed conductors, materials capable of transporting both electronic and ionic charges. This dual conductivity is important for bioelectronic interfaces, where signals often involve ionic currents in tissue rather than purely electronic ones.
To evaluate biological performance, the team patterned electrodes directly onto the skin of anesthetized mice and used them to record brain activity. Compared with conventional metal electrodes used in electroencephalography, the polymer-based electrodes produced clearer recordings of low-frequency signals. The improvement is attributed to better contact with the skin and reduced mechanical mismatch between the electrode and tissue.
Beyond neural recording, the researchers see potential applications in wearable sensors, rehabilitation devices, and soft medical interfaces. Because the polymerization process can be driven by simple light sources such as LEDs, it may also be suited to scalable manufacturing of organic electronic circuits without the need for specialized cleanroom environments or hazardous solvents.
From an engineering standpoint, the work highlights how advances in materials chemistry can simplify fabrication while expanding functionality. Printing electrodes in place, rather than attaching prefabricated components, could reduce device complexity and improve reliability in systems designed for close contact with the body.
While further testing is needed to assess long-term stability, durability, and regulatory considerations, the light-driven polymerization technique provides a new tool for designing electronics that integrate more naturally with biological systems. As interest in wearable and implantable devices continues to grow, methods that combine safety, flexibility, and manufacturability are likely to play an increasingly important role.
Adrian graduated with a Masters Degree (1st Class Honours) in Chemical Engineering from Chester University along with Harris. His master’s research aimed to develop a standardadised clean water oxygenation transfer procedure to test bubble diffusers that are currently used in the wastewater industry commercial market. He has also undergone placments in both US and China primarely focused within the R&D department and is an associate member of the Institute of Chemical Engineers (IChemE).
